PART I
PAPAL, COUNCILIAR, SYNODAL
CHAPTER I
TIME OF JOHN XXIII
On May 1, 1959--the feast of Joseph the Worker--Pope John XXIII addressed, in Rome, delegates to the Christian Associations of Italian Workers (ACLI).(1) He commended the organization, "because in your movement We have seen the realization of ideals toward which several precursors of today's social reforms labored over the years." He mentioned that, in his years as a young priest in Bergamo, he "learned how to take to heart the lot of the workers," in the company of Monsignor Radini Tedeschi, the founder of ACLI. The pope's greeting was for all workers, in Italy and the world
. . . those who engage in spiritual activity, using their intellectual and cultural talents . . . those who employ their physical strength in service of workers in the fields and mines, industry and handicraft, in factories and laboratories, homemakers and shop assistants, and women toiling in the rice fields and factories.
Noted were ACLI's success in improving working conditions by effective cooperation with "mutual respect and awareness of rights and duties of each." Encouragement was given to intensify and expand efforts to convince workers "hatred is not a solution of their problems, nor is the triumph of anti-Christian ideologies the secret for changing the world."
At the end of May, 1959, John XXIII in the Vatican Basilica spoke to an audience of some fifty groups, representing executives, workers and union leaders from many occupations and industries.(2) He singled out several groups by name. Commendations and encouragements were varied: consider your work as a service to be performed, courtesy is an indispensable qualification of your work, stop and pray in the quiet of your hearts.
On June 29, 1959 John XXIII issued Ad Petri Cathedram, his first encyclical.(3) In the context of three themes--truth, unity and peace--he included some comments about labor-management issues. The pope thought that class relations were less bitter and distant than previously. No longer were there simply capital and labor. The number of classes had multiplied and were accessible to all.
Anyone who is diligent and capable has the opportunity to rise to higher levels of society. As for the conditions of those who live by their daily toil, it is consoling to note that recently undertaken improvements in working conditions in factories and other places of employment have done more than give these workers a greater economic value; they have made their lives nobler and more dignified.
Nonetheless, the pope saw much need for improvement and bemoaned excessive disparity of wealth and the hostility among groups. He attributed much of that to unsound and unjust opinions about the right to property held by those "who desire unfair advantages and benefits for themselves." The pope also viewed threats of unemployment as sources of anxiety for many, especially with expanding automation. He called for private and public efforts to realize mutual union among the classes of society, as well the attainment of life's necessities by the workers and the poor.
So, he called for just wages, increased sharing by workers in the fruits of their labors and helping workers "to regard themselves as partners in the entire enterprise." He called for greater harmony and reconciliation between the rights and duties of employees and employers. He admonished them, with hopes of Pius XII, that associations representing the interests of each,
. . . will not seem like armies ready to make or repel attacks in such wise as to make the enemy more resolute or to incite counterattack or like a river which engulfs every obstacle in its course; but like a bridge which joins opposite shores.
John XXIII wished all the material good and benefits of civilization for "the working class" but not at the expense of higher spiritual good. He was confident "all will come out well if the social teaching of the Catholic Church is applied as it should be to the problem."
The encyclical addressed the challenges of interfaith cooperation and unity. There were specific messages for a variety of people, especially Catholic Actionists. Very noteworthy is a section on social justice near the end of the encyclical. Repeating earlier admonitions about assisting the social classes to cooperate with one another by adhering to the church's social teaching rather than "false promises and deceptive lies" of the church's enemies, the pope asserted,
Anyone who considers without bias the opportunities and advantages which recently have come to the working classes must admit they are in great part the result of persistent and effective social measures taken by Catholics in accord with the wise directives and repeated exhortations of Our predecessors. The social teachings of Christianity, then, contain sure and sound principles which will make adequate provision for rights of the lower classes, if those who endeavour to defend these rights, only put those principles into practice.
On October 17, 1959 John XXIII spoke to delegates to a convention on the dignity of labor.(4) The pope began with praises for the purpose and accomplishments of the group in enhancing the moral value of workers' contributions to society and their workplaces. Also, acknowledged were the group's efforts to,
. . . bring about the betterment of human relations within the framework of the employing organizations, to enable both employers and employees to develop and enrich their personalities to the maximum.
Without harmonious cooperation of all parties in workplaces, John XXIII deemed it impossible to achieve the Christian concept of human work. The sorry conditions of Leo XIII's times were in marked contrast with modern improvements, so that his "frequent meetings with representatives of different trades and of various labor unions are a source of constant gratification." He deemed their efforts as "transforming work into an instrument of moral perfection and brotherly cooperation between management and labor".
On December 23, 1959 John XXIII broadcast to the world his first Christmas message, "Peace on Earth."(5) With reference to words of the liturgy, he commented on peace of heart and social peace. For the achievement of social peace, the church "has always fixed her gaze on the human person and has taught that things and institutions--goods, economy, state--are primarily for man and not man for them." Decrying the treatment of humans as pieces of merchandise, worthless cogs in machines or productive units, John XXIII insisted,
Only when the dignity of the person is taken seriously as the standard of value for man and his activities that the means will exist to settle civil discord and often profound divisions, for example, between employers and the employed. . . to secure for the family conditions of life and work and assistance which can make it better directed to its function as a cell of society and the primary community instituted by God Himself for the development of the human person.
Toward the end of his message John XXIII repeated the causes of "international uneasiness" listed in Pius XII's Christmas messages in 1942 and 1943. Among them were: violations of the rights and dignity of the human person, interferences with the rights of the family and of employment, and egotistical calculations of all who strive to seize control of economic sources of widely used materials.
On April 23, 1960 delegates from eighty-four organizations in over 100 countries heard John XXIII's address to the World Federation of Catholic Women Congress on the topic of "Woman's Work."(6) He noted reports and exchange of opinions about the meaning of work for young girls, as well as the circumstances for using work "to bring about full flowering of their being, to sanctify themselves, and to become true apostles in their milieu."
John XXIII noted how modern life magnifies the importance of work and exalts the worker. In the first case there is talk of transforming the earth, "sometime in a spectacular fashion." In the second case there is attribution of "a sense of responsibility, aptitude for initiatives" etc. He was critical of any deification,
. . . of work itself and its organization, reducing man to the rank of a simple material instrument. But sound reason and faith, on the contrary, teach us the high dignity of the human person and show us that work must finally end up in the service of the person.
The pope then affirmed woman's equal dignity with man, but insisted on women being ordained by nature and God "for different tasks, which perfect and complete the work assigned to man." The congress was challenged to labor for the maintenance, strengthening, or restoring "this natural order," on individual and institutional levels. In characterizing the work of women, he said,
. . . it must be affirmed without hesitation the task of woman, being directed immediately or remotely toward maternity, consists of everything that is a work of love, giving, welcoming . . . puts one at the disposal of others . . . is disinterested service of other people--all this finds a natural place in the feminine calling.
John XXIII addressed 30,000 members of the Italian Confederation of Independent Farmers, on April 25, 1960 in Rome.(7) Complimenting them as rich in virtue, though poor in luxuries, the pope noted their serenity and dignity, as well as love of families and country and loyalty to the church, amid the toil of cultivating the soil. Their organization was praised for going beyond economic and technical goals to apply Christian principles in interests of independent farmers. With an eye to the implementation of plans for the European Common Market, John XXIII hoped that,
. . . the necessity for matching your incomes more equitably to the incomes of other trades and . . . the necessity for balancing the national budget, could both be satisfied in accordance with the provident guidance of Christian social doctrine and in actual the situation of the farmer.
The pope encouraged the congress in its study of "the technico-economic measures. . . under consideration in order to improve the Italian farmers' situation." He also urged the farmers to continue their lives of virtue which mirror so well their colesness to God's creation and which are so necessary for strong Christian family life.
John XXIII delivered a radio address to workers, May 1, 1960, on the dignity of work.(8) An address to workers on the feast of Joseph seemed quite natural for the pope, whose thoughts turned to homes, schools, offices, shops, factories, laboratories--"to all places sanctified by intellectual and manual labor, in its varied and noble forms, performed in accordance with the strength and capacity of each individual."
Reminding his listeners that all lives are dignified and conditioned by the laws of work, the pope began a brief discussion on the nature of work,
Work is indeed a great mission: it is the intelligent and effective collaboration of man with God the Creator . . . Whatever we find in work that is laborious and difficult of attainment, has its place in God's redeeming plan . . .
Here then, in the splendor which radiates from our heavenly model, lie the attitude and disposition with which to stamp the work, burdens and honors of every man's life.
The pope warned of mistaken ideologies, that negate the beginning of solutions, concern for new reforms and respect for fundamental values. Such ideologies,
. . . exalting . . . unbridled liberty and . . . suppression of personality, have sought to rob the worker of his greatness by reducing him to an instrument of struggle and . . . abandoning him to himself; there is desire to sow contention and discord, by setting the various social classes one against the other; there have even been efforts to severe the working classes from their God.
Once again, protestations of the church's concern for workers were expressed--especially in disagreeable and difficult, unknown and unesteemed jobs. The church was said to be very concerned about those without steady work, tortured by worries over growing families, and sorely tried by illness or injury in the workplace. The John XXIII assured the workers,
Those who bear the responsibility incurred by possession of power or means will be invited by us, at every opportunity, to act in such a manner that you will be assured of increasingly better living and working conditions, and, above all, of steady, dignified employment.
On December 7, 1960, members of the Tenth National Congress of the Italian Center for Women heard John XXIII on the topic, "The Woman of Today--at Home and at Work."(9) There was the usual praise for accomplishments: calling women to take their proper place in family, civic, and social life; promoting women's movements with inspiration from similar ideals of unity, zeal and generosity. He referred to family and work--the twofold theme of the congress--as "two centers of attraction, two basic structures upon which the life of woman rests."
In defence of the family, John XXIII renewed his earlier pleas for action to offset the undermining of the sanctity of the family, "the natural environment of personality development and a providential refuge where the storms of life become calm and gentle." He called for action--civil if appropriate--against values and attitudes undermining marriage and family, especially among the youth. In defense of the family, "there is an irreplaceable role that belongs to woman."
With regard to woman at work, the pope noted that some question the wisdom of employing women "in certain specified types of labor and certain professions," especially in their adolescent years. Nevertheless, his audience was reminded of the need to face facts,
. . . there is an ever greater flow of women toward sources of employment and labor and an ever more widespread desire on their part for some kind of activity making them independent and free from want.
Whatever the economic advantages, the new phenomena for women at work urged the pope to encourage better preparation, a spirit of adaptability, and the discipline of sacrifice. For, there were attendant problems in family life: children at home without a mother they need, decrease of necessary rest and leisure, neglect of holy days and religious practice, dulling of personality by humiliating types of work, and loss of a refuge and restoration for a husband's energies after a workday.
Frequent recourse to prayer and the sacraments were urged on women, as well as determination not to allow contacts with the world of work to dry up "the richness of their inner life, the resources of their sensitivity and open and delicate spirits." This challenge was considered, by John XXIII, to be greater for women, ". . . if you take into consideration women's natural frailty in certain respects and the fact that more is being asked of them."
John XXIII spoke to the directors and employees involved in thermal bath establishments in Vicneza, on February 26, 1961, during their pilgrimage to Rome.(10) After exhorting them to be loyal to the church and to take the Lenten season seriously, John XXIII focused on the dignity of workers. Reminding them of such a concern voiced by Pius XII and Leo XIII, the pope urged his audience to labor mightily to have the Catholic social "doctrine" accepted and implemented in their work. Describing the same as founded on "priceless statements" standing in the midst of modern social upheavals, John XXIII asserted,
The Christian worker can find in the magisterium of the Church the strongest and wisest safeguard of his dignity, his interest, and his rights. It is second to none in its progress in the social field: even more, the possession of truth and justice . . . gives it a greatness and superiority that fears no comparisons.
On March 18, 1961 John XXIII spoke to directors and employees of International Business Machines.(11) After expressing cordial greetings to representatives IBM Europe and the Middle East, the pope recalled his own and Pius XII's appreciation of the benefits of electronic computers and automation in general. He referred in particular to the benefits in planning,
. . . they show regard for the ultimate aim of human labor and promote the satisfaction of those great needs which, in so many areas of the world and in so many social classes, constitute an anguished appeal to the riches of the most favored countries.
John XXIII expressed his appreciation of the use of the computer by Roberto Busa, S.J., in compiling the Index Thomisticus. Such uses of technology were valued as a service of humanism, a benefit for spiritual values, an example of the mastery of spirit over matter, a recalling of the humility of the creature and the wonder of the child, and a reminder of human dignity.
On April 19, 1961 John XXIII addressed "Words of Hope for the Farmer" as some thirty thousand members of the Italian Confederation of Independent Farmers--among them his brother Giuseppe Roncalli--listened.(12) Alluding to one of the confederation's considerations at its fifteenth national congress, restoring confidence in the farming world by an organic and courageous agricultural policy, the pope noted accomplishments of rural women's groups and young farmers. Such was encouraging for the pope, since agriculture is "one of the most important factors of the world economy."
Amid anxieties about adequate wages and means of living, the farmers were reassured of the church's concern for them, as evident in "solemn pontifical documents." The same concern prompted further words of hope and trust from the pope. The farmers were told to trust in God, give attention to moral teaching, and trust in themselves, as well. While cautions were voiced about individualism, conformity and faint-heartedness, encouragement was given to develop one's personality, personal initiative, inventiveness and various productive capabilities. In the context of remarks about Leo XII, support was given on the necessity of cultivating solidarity and mutual assistance,
. . . passing on to each other efforts and successes, becoming organized into cooperatives and societies, placing yourselves at the level of a basic demand of modern social and economic life--which is union and collaboration for a more certain improvement in the fruits of one's own labor.
Finally, the farmers were told to trust in society. To expect from societies laws and measures not available through individual or group efforts was encouraged. Measures owed in justice include insurance, pensions and family allowances. The confederation was urged to continue advocating such measures. For, not only did other social categories already benefit from the measures, but also because Leo XIII had called for them in 1891.
On April 23, 1961 John XXIII spoke on "The Church and Workers" to a large group of dock workers from Genoa.(13) His own statements and those of his predecessors reveal deep solicitude for workers by the church and only "small-minded people" would label such "propaganda." Like Jesus, the church stands by people in material need and guides them through life's inevitable trials. Yet, she "does not wish to delude them with rosy visions and deceptive promises of endless temporal happiness--always an easy task for self-appointed teachers." John XXIII concluded with the plea, "Do not be overcome by the spirit of this world, the materialism that clips the wings of the holy energies of the spirit."
John XXIII's next talk on labor-management relations, previewing a second encyclical, Mater et Magistra, was given on May 14, 1961 in St. Peter's Square to 90,000 workers from countries.(14) They came to celebrate the 70th anniversary of Leo XIII's Rerum Novarum. John XXIII called the encyclical,
. . . a doctrinal and practical treatment of the work that goes on in factories and fields, the work of all the people who use their human energies--arms and head and heart, body and mind--to earn a living, to find a little prosperity, to add to the wealth of the whole world.
He viewed its teaching "not really new but as old as the Gospel." Yet, the encyclical cast a light for better adaptation to contemporary conditions and issues,
. . . about which every one wanted to have a say--many were doing so, but rashly, thus creating the danger of confusion and stirring up temptation to social disorder.
The light revealed an horizon that clearly and courageously represented a stand between, hand farm and industrial workers on the one hand and, landowners and business leaderson the other. The stand asserted the vital necessity of so arranging relationships that,
. . . would be just and equitable, and thus beneficial to both sides, by making use of the intervention of the State and the sincere and honest efforts of . . . the workers and employers.
John XXIII next commented on conditions between 1891 and 1931, brought on by World War I. These condtions became so threatening that Pius XI wrote Quadragesimo Anno to resume the church's dialogue with the labor-management participants, so that the social teaching would reflect new situations. Such had arisen from new techniques, which had become burdensome "for the masses of people laboring in the factories and fields." Pius XI's letter clearly portrayed and insightfully analyzed labor, property, salary, as well as their relationship to the demands of the common good.
Right at the top he placed the supreme principle that always has to rule over any relationship of this kind--not unrestrained free competition, not economic domination--both are blind forces--but the eternal and sacred notions of justice and charity.
. . . demands of justice cannot be satisfied unless society is rearranged organically through the reconstitution of intermediate bodies toward social-economic ends.
A powerful and important conclusion . . . was the need of steady, patient effort for cooperation between great and small nations.
Words of praise were forthcoming also for Pius XII's spoken and written words, which built on what preceded him. They were described as scattered over "various sectors of sociology," dealt with when he took up the internal structures of . . . political communities . . . [and] relations between them on the world plane," intended for particular occasions or problems but . . . characterized by the broad sweep of horizons touched upon and revealed," and "always worth going back to [for] the precious treasures that abound there."
However, John XXIII saw need of another document, which would add a fuller, richer, more complete explanation of Christian doctrine. He explained that the document would not be issued on the exact anniversary date of Rerum Novarum, May 15th, because he wanted the official Latin text to reach, at the same time, "all those who believe in Christ and all good souls scattered throughout the world." John XXIII then outlined the parts of the forthcoming text.
The first was to be a synthesis of the thought of Leo and the recent Piuses. The second was to discuss recurring problems: relationships between private initiative and the role of public authority in the economic field, the ever increasing number of associations in various areas of life, remuneration for labor, the demands of justice and their relation to the means and methods of production, and the very serious matter of private property. In addition to considering recent developments in these problem areas, John XXIII insisted that his contributions to Catholic social teaching, like those of Leo and the Piuses is always dominated by one basic theme, "an unshakable affirmation and vigorous defense of the dignity and rights of the human person."
The third part was to highlight some of "the most obvious and urgent problems of the present moment." One was to be the farm problem. For, among the greatest demands of justice is "precisely this justice of restoring economic and social balance between the two sectors of human society." Another was to be the problem of poverty. Such as times was deemed the basis,
. . . for the uneasiness that is at times a cruel reality in the relationships between political communities that are economically developed and those that are economically underdeveloped.
Declaring that assistance so far had not gotten at the root causes of "these conditions of want and misery" and calling for greater international cooperation of a very disinterested and intelligent, technical and direct nature, John XXIII deemed,
. . . it both right and holy for Us to issue a new warning, and to exalt the principle of the solidarity of all human beings and for Us to remind people about the duty that communities and individuals with abundant means of support at their disposal have, to go to the aid of those who find themselves in conditions of need and want.
The fourth part of the forthcoming encyclical was to be "a new synthesis of social relationships, in the light of the teaching of Holy Church . . . an enchanting picture of the way in which human society is to be organized." The document was to close with "some valuable suggestions" for developing awareness and implementation of social duties.
John XXIII concluded his May 14, 1961 address to the 90,000 workers by drawing an analogy to the church bells heard by the workers in Rome and at home. As a little picture "you will find pleasant and instructive," the pope described the reaction to Leo's and the Piuses' documents as,
. . . surprise at hearing the sound of a new bell coming from the old tower of the parish church, from every parish in the world . . . it chimed in with concert of other great church bells that were already familiar to the faithful from the old, established customs of religious piety. That sound . . . did not turn out to be discordant with the ring of other bells; instead it was completely harmonious, vibrant, joyous.
. . . it is not just the shrill cry of one or a few bells that we hear from the old tower and the new ones appearing in even greater numbers. . . . Rather, it is truly a deluge, a festival of bronze harmoniously pealing forth to spread the glory of Christ . . . always reaching out to touch human beings, not simply to prepare them for heavenly goods . . . but reaching out to their bodies as well and to all that is truly good in life here below in the civic and social order.